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addorsed: figures, usually of a heraldic nature,
standing back to back.
Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 C.E.): the
Second Islamic Dynasty of caliphs who seized power from the
Damascus based Ummayads in 750 C.E. The Abbasids were descendents
of Abbas, the uncle of Muhammad; they ruled from their imperial
capital of Baghdad, later from Samara, and then once again from
Baghdad. The earlier period of the Caliphate, particularly under
Harun-al Rashid (786–809 C.E.) was celebrated for its
cultural brilliance, which included manifestations of both Persian
and Greek influences. The relationship between the Byzantines
and the Abbasids was one of rivalry and tension; nevertheless,
there were periods of positive cultural contacts between the
two Empires. The apogee of this intercourse took place during
the ninth century, and involved the highest echelons of Byzantine
society, including the iconoclast Patriarch John VII Grammatikos
and Patriarch Photios. The sack of Baghdad and the execution
of the last Baghdad Caliph al-Muta’sim by the Mongol Hulagu
in 1258, were shattering events for the Islamic world, and brought
to an end a particularly brilliant period of Islamic power.
acheiropoietos, acheiropoieta (Gr., [object(s)]
"not made by human hands"): a term used to describe
images depicting Christ, the Virgin or a saint, that initially
appear in a miraculous fashion, or which are able replicate
themselves without human intervention. Among the most important
examples depicting Christ are the Holy Mandylion and the Kamoulianai.
Such images were believed to have come into existence by the
will of their prototypes; as such, acheiropoieta were used to
support the validity of icon veneration by Saint John of Damascus
during the iconoclastic period (726–842 C.E.); John notes that
Christ himself sent his miraculously generated image to the
leprous King Abgar of Edessa, when the painter sent to portray
his features was unable to do so because of their splendor,
see Mandylion and (Cat 95, 96, 309, 333, 334, 335, 336).
adventus (Lat., "arrival"): This
rite has its roots in the ceremonial arrival and greeting of
an Emperor or victorious general at Rome. During the Byzantine
period the honor was also bestowed upon bishops, officials,
saints’ relics as well as the Emperor’s fiancée.
The ritualized process involved a party of officials leaving
the city to meet the honoree, who was greeted with acclamations;
after having officially entered the city, a visit to a shrine
or sanctuary was de-rigueur.
aer, aeres: (Gr., "air," "wind"):
a large veil carried in solemn procession during the Great Entrance
and then immediately draped over the eucharistic elements present
on the altar. The iconography of the aer reflects Byzantine
theological thinking, that the covering of the Eucharistic elements
symbolizes Christ’s burial; the veil representing both
Christ’s shroud and the stone that sealed his tomb. The
earliest surviving examples of aeres date from the turn of the
fourteenth century; only the inclusion of Eucharistic prayers
distinguishes the aer from the similarly-decorated
textile known as the epitaphios. (Cat 186) See also, discokalymma
and poterokalymma.
akakia, also called anexikakia (Gr., "without
guile" or "goodness"): a small cylindrical purple
silk pouch held by the Byzantine Emperor during court ceremonies.
The luxurious material belied that fact that it contained earth
or dust from a grave, which was intended to remind the Emperor
of the ephemeral nature of life and its glory. A clear depiction
of the akakia can be seen in the portrait of Manuel II Palaiologos,
(cat 1). The akakia is also found in imagery where Byzantine
royal iconography has been appropriated by non-Byzantine rulers;
as for example in the "Coronation Dinar" of the Serbian
Tsar Stefan Dusan (cat 13) and in the Gospels of the Bulgarian
Tsar Ivan Alexander (cat 27).
Akathistos Hymn (Gr., "not sitting"):
Probably the oldest Marian Hymn of the Eastern Church, sung
while the congregation stood, hence the work’s title in
Greek: "not-sitting." The composition has been attributed
to Romanos the Melodist (died 555 C.E.), although this has not
been universally accepted. The hymn consists of 24 stanzas,
or oikoi (houses); the first 12 are historical in character;
these survey the childhood of Christ and relate the episodes
from the Annunciation to the Presentation at the Temple. The
second 12 are theological or dogmatic, consisting of a sequence
of glorifications of Christ and the Virgin, beginning with the
word "Chaire," or hail, greeting. These oikoi, alternate
between long and short, and each commences with a letter of
the Greek alphabet. The adoption of this text for decorative
purposes is initially found in manuscript illuminations, see
El Escorial Akathistos (cat 172), and soon was found in panel
paintings and entered monumental into monumental parietal programs,
examples of which are found at the Church of the Pantokrator
at Decani (1348–1350), at the Wallachian Church of the Virgin
at Cozia (end of the fourteenth Century) and at Ferapontov Monastery
in Russia (1500-1502).
Akra Tapeinosis (Gr., "utmost humiliation"
Isaiah 53:8): an image of the dead Christ, displaying the wounds
of the Passion. The image combines narrative elements pertaining
to the deposition and entombment of Christ. A number of images
of this type have come down to us, in panel paintings, with
two in the extremely rare format of miniature mosaic. Often
this depiction was paired with one of the Virgin, forming a
diptych or a double-sided panel, (cat 97, 98, 104). The iconography
reached the west, perhaps popularized by the mosaic icon representing
the subject known as the Reliquary of Saint Gregory the Great,
found at the pilgrim church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme (cat
131). The image attained great popularity as "The Man of
Sorrows," (see cat 293, 294, 329, 330, 332), one example
reflects the original Byzantine format, with an image of the
Dead Christ paired with an image of his Mother (see cat 331).
amnos (Gr., "lamb"): In the Orthodox Rite, the stamped
central portion of the leavened Eucharistic loaf, or prosphora,
is called the amnos, or lamb. The sacrificial lamb is symbolic
of Christ, although his representation in this form was forbidden
at the Quinisext Council (691–692). The amnos is extracted during
the proskimidi or prothesis (offering) rite, as the priest removes
it with the Eucharsitic spear, he recites the words "As
a spotless lamb before his shearers, he did not open his mouth."
The amnos is placed in the paten or diskos and later consecrated
during the Liturgy of the Faithful, see Christ Amnos.
ampulla (Lat., "bottle"): small container used by
pilgrims to carry sacred oil, water or earth, sanctified by
contact with a sacred object or place (eulogia). These objects
were highly prized for their miraculous powers of healing and
their apotropaic qualities (see cat 139).
analogion, analogia (Gr., "reading desk," "bookstand,"
from the word analegein, "to read"): a lectern or
stand four or five feet in height and typically with a sloping
top, made of wood and leather, decorated by a textile. These
were used to hold the gospels or other sacred texts when they
were being read to the congregation, or used to display the
gospels or an icon in the center of the church for veneration
by the faithful (see cat. 25).
anargyros (oi) (Gr., "without accepting
money"): An epithet given to physician saints who refused
payment for their skills; Kosmas and Damian, Kyros and John
and Pantaleemon are the most celebrated examples. They are usually
depicted holding the tools of their trade: small medicine boxes
divided into compartments or medical instruments. The saints
are also known in English as the Holy Unmercenaries.
Anastasis (Gr., "resurrection"): One of the Twelve
Great Feasts; the depiction of Christ’s harrowing of hell
and vanquishing of Hades. The image is based upon Apocryphal
accounts, such as the Gospel of Nicodemus, and first appears
during the eighth century. By the eleventh century the iconography
assumes its current form in which Christ tramples upon the crossed
Gates of Hell, while reaching for the figure of Adam by the
forearm (see cat 81).
aniconic: The avoidance of figural imagery and the reliance
upon the use of vegetal, geometric or abstract motifs for decorative
effects.
anthemion (from Gr., anthos, "flower"): ornamental
pattern of symmetrically arranged floral forms.
apotropaion, apotropaia (from the Gr., apotrepo "to turn
back"): an object that wards off evil.
apse: semi-circular or polygonal projection at the eastern end
of a church’s nave, and the area that belonged exclusively
to members of the clergy, and to the Emperor.
arcosolium, arcosolia: arched recess used to
house a sarcophagus. In the late Byzantine period these recesses
contained dummy sarcophagi, with the body actually interred
below the church floor.
argyrokentema (Gr., silver embroidery): silk thread with thin
strips of silver foil loosely wound around it, enabling the
colored core to be visible, see chrysokentema.
aspasmos (Gr., "kiss," "embrace") A term
used to describe the manner in which the faithful greet an icon
by bowing, kissing and touching it. The Second Council at Nicaea
(787 C.E.), which reinstated the veneration of icons, intentionally
utilized charged terms that were typically associated with erotic
language, symbolizing the yearning of the faithful for god and
his saints.
asterisk, asterikos: (Gr., "star"): sacred utensil
consisting of two raised metal bands, connected to one another
at a 90 degree angle. The asterisk is placed on top of the paten,
in order to prevent the liturgical veil, or diskokalymma from
disturbing the careful arrangement of the bread particles. When
the celebrant places the asterisk over the paten during the
Prothesis Rite, he intones the words: "And behold, the
star came and stood over where the young child lay," underscoring
the symbolism of the object’s form.
ataxia, see taxis
Athos (Gr., Aghion Oros, "The Holy Mountain"):
The center of Eastern Orthodox monasticism is located on the
most easterly of the three pronged Chalkidiki peninsula in Northern
Greece. Today there are twenty monasteries, seventeen of which
are Greek, one is Russian (Saint Pantaleimon), one is Serbian,
(Chilandar), one is Bulgarian (Zographou). Together with these
monasteries there are a number of sketes (monastic dependencies
as well. The first settlers were anchorites living in caves
on the sheer mountain’s cliffs, later in the tenth century,
small cenobitic communities emerged. The Holy Mountain or Aghion
Oros acquired its autonomous status by the eleventh century.
It was richly endowed by Byzantine Emperors, starting with Nikephoros
Phokas, whose friend Athanasius founded the Great Lavra, the
first large-scale coenobitic foundation. Over the centuries
Athos survived Pirate raids, the Latin Rule of the Catalan Company
and the Ottoman conquest.
augusta (Lat., venerable, august, majestic): title of the Byzantine
Empress, usually the wife of the emperor, but sometimes bestowed
upon other female members of his family, i.e. his mother or
sister.
Augustaion: enclosed open space in Constantinople to the south
of Hagia Sophia. The Augustaion contained a famous equestrian
statue of Justinian and abutted the senate house. The Augustaion
was entered from the west, near the Milion marker, the spot
from where the distances to the important cities of the empire
were measured.
autocephalous (from the Greek, auto "self"
and kephale "head"): term from Canon Law used to describe
an Ecclesiastical province possessing the right to nominate
its own bishop, or kephale, independently from the jurisdiction
of the five Ancient Patriarchates. Examples of autocephalous
provinces are Cyprus, Bulgaria, Serbia, Sinai, etc. Although
independent, autocephalous churches did not have the right to
alter doctrinal issues already decided by the Seven Ecumenical
Councils recognized by the Orthodox Church.
autokrator (Gr., "emperor"): translation of the Latin
"imperator," a term used for the Eastern Roman Emperor
after 629. After the defeat of the Persians by the Emperor Herakleios
(610–641 C.E.), the emperor was called basileus and autokrator.
Under the Palaiologan Dynasty, the term was used for the reigning
emperor and his heir.
Ayyubids: Independent Dynasty founded by the Kurdish Leader
Saladin. The Ayyubids ruled from 1171–1260, in Syria, Upper
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Yemen, and the Holy cities of Mecca and
Medina. Saladin defeated the Crusaders in 1187 and recovered
Jerusalem for the Muslim World.
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