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The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911): Loyalists and Individualists

• 
  Wooded Mountains at Dusk, Qing dynasty (1644–1911), dated 1666
  Kuncan (Chinese, 1612–1673)
  Hanging scroll; ink and color on paper

  49 3/4 x 23 7/8 in. (126.2 x 60.6 cm)
  Inscribed by the artist
  Bequest of John M. Crawford Jr., 1988 (1989.363.129)

• 
  Landscapes Painted for Yuweng, Qing dynasty (1644–1911), dated 1673
  Fan Qi (Chinese, 1616–after 1694)
  Album of eight leaves; ink and color on paper

  6 x 7 7/16 in. (15.2 x 18.9 cm)
  Inscribed by the artist
  Bequest of John M. Crawford, Jr., 1988 (1989.363.131)

• 
  Landscapes and Trees, Qing dynasty (1644–1911), ca. 1679
  Gong Xian (Chinese, 1619–1689)
  Album of twelve paintings; ink on paper

  6 1/4 x 7 9/16 in. (15.9 x 19.2 cm)
  Facing pages inscribed by the artist
  From the P. Y. and Kinmay W. Tang Family Collection
  Gift of Wen and Constance Fong, in honor of Mr. and Mrs. Douglas Dillon, 1979 (1979.499)

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The Anhui Masters
According to the dictates of Confucian tradition, a man may not serve under two dynasties. As a result, many Ming officials and loyal subjects withdrew from public service after the fall of the Ming dynasty and lived in enforced retirement, pursuing personal and artistic self-cultivation. Escaping the chaos of the Manchu conquest, many of these artists found sanctuary outside traditional centers of culture. Lacking access to important collections of old masters, they drew inspiration from the natural beauty of the local scenery. One group of Ming loyalists living in Anhui Province, a prosperous region known for its outstanding paper and ink, saw in the rugged cliffs and craggy pines of Mount Huang (Yellow Mountain) a world free from the taint of Manchu occupation. Inspired by the Yuan-dynasty recluse-painter Ni Zan (1306–1374), who was known for his lofty moral character, these artists emulated Ni's minimalist compositions and "dry-brush" painting style, features that became hallmarks of the so-called Anhui School.

Many Ming officials and loyal subjects withdrew from public service after the fall of the Ming dynasty and lived in enforced retirement, pursuing personal and artistic self-cultivation.

Related

Timelines (5)

• Central and North Asia, 1600–1800 A.D.
• China, 1600–1800 A.D.
• Himalayan Region, 1600–1800 A.D.
• Japan, 1600–1800 A.D.
• Korea, 1600–1800 A.D.

Primary Thematic Essays (3)

• Landscape Painting in Chinese Art
• Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
• The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911): Painting

Other Thematic Essays (15)

• Art of the Edo Period (1615–1868 a.d.)
• Chinese Calligraphy
• Chinese Handscrolls
• Joseon Buncheong Ware: Between Celadon and Porcelain
• The Kano School of Painting
• List of Rulers of China
• Mountain and Water: Korean Landscape Painting, 1400–1800
• Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)
• The Printed Image in the West: Engraving
• The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911): The Courtiers, Officials, and Professional Artists
• The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911): The Traditionalists
• Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)
• Traditional Chinese Painting in the Twentieth Century
• Wang Hui (1632–1717)
• Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)

Maps (2)

• East Asia, 1600–1800 a.d.
• World, 1600–1800 a.d.

Index Terms (19)

Art Movement/Style

• Ming Dynasty of China
• Qing Dynasty of China
• Yuan Dynasty of China

Artist

• Fan Qi (Chinese, 1616–after 1694)
• Gong Xian (Chinese, 1619–1689)
• Kuncan (Chinese, 1612–1673)
• Ni Zan (Chinese, 1306–1374)
• Shitao, or Zhu Ruoji (Chinese, 1642–1707)

Geography/Place

• China

Material and Technique

• Calligraphy from Central and North Asia
• Calligraphy from East Asia
• Painting in Ink on Paper from China
• Painting in Ink on Paper from East Asia

Subject Matter/Theme

• Chinese Poetry
• Landscape from China
• Landscape from East Asia
• Scholar
• Self–Portraiture from East Asia
• Spring

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The Nanjing Masters
Nanjing, the Ming dynasty's secondary capital, remained a haven for loyalists during the early Qing. A center of Jesuit missionary activity since the late sixteenth century—it was once the home of Matteo Ricci (1552–1610)—Nanjing was also one of the first places where Chinese painters began to incorporate Western ideas of shading and perspective in their depictions of local scenery.

The most innovative Nanjing master was Gong Xian (ca. 1618–1689), who practiced a densely textured, monumental landscape style in which he was able to suggest volume and mass by varying the density and darkness of his ink dots. This modeling technique is highly schematic, and there is no single light source as in Western painting, but Gong's interest in the effects of light and shade probably owes something to the influence of European engravings and paintings.

Zhang Feng (active ca. 1636–62), whose father died in 1631 while defending the Ming against early incursions by the Manchus, withdrew from society after the fall of the Ming and became associated with the Buddhist church. Zhang's paintings present images of reclusion in the pale, dry style of Ni Zan.

Among the more conservative masters working in Nanjing were Ye Xin (active ca. 1640–73) and Fan Qi (1616–after 1694), both of whom worked in an unusually precise and realistic style. Both specialized in small-scale gemlike paintings depicting the rural scenery around their native city. Sensitive and lyrical recorders of the familiar, these artists were also innovative experimenters with light, atmosphere, and color whose art reflects a creative response to Western influences recently introduced to China by the Jesuits.

Maxwell K. Hearn Department of Asian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Citation Hearn, Maxwell K. "The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911): Loyalists and Individualists". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/qing_3/hd_qing_3.htm (October 2003) Further Reading Barnhart, Richard M., Wen C. Fong, and Maxwell K. Hearn. Mandate of Heaven: Emperors and Artists in China: Chinese Painting and Calligraphy from The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Exhibition catalogue. Zürich: Museum Rietberg, 1996. Cahill, James, ed. Shadows of Mt. Huang: Chinese Painting and Printing of the Anhui School. Exhibition catalogue. Berkeley: University Art Museum, 1981. Fong, Wen C., ed. Returning Home: Tao-chi's Album of Landscapes and Flowers. New York: George Braziller, 1976. Suggested Online Resources Recording the Grandeur of the Qing I Nanxuntu: Southern Inspection Tour Scrolls The University of Chicago Center for the Art of East Asia Digital Scrolling Paintings Project Related exhibitions and online features Special Exhibitions (including upcoming, current, and past exhibitions) The Artist as Collector: Masterpieces of Chinese Painting from the C. C. Wang Family Collection Arts of the Ming Dynasty: China's Age of Brilliance Dreams of Yellow Mountain: Landscapes of Survival in Seventeenth-Century China A Millennium of Chinese Painting: Masterpieces from the Permanent Collection When the Manchus Ruled China: Painting under the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) The Yuan Revolution: Art and Dynastic Change

These related Museum Bulletin or Journal articles may or may not represent the most current scholarship. Fong, Wen, and Maxwell K. Hearn. "Silent Poetry: Chinese Paintings in the Douglas Dillon Galleries." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 39, no. 3 (Winter, 1981–82). JSTOR | PDF Valenstein, Suzanne G. "Highlights of Chinese Ceramics." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 33, no. 3 (Autumn, 1975). JSTOR | PDF | Supplemental PDFs "Director's Note" PDF Mailey, Jean. "Ancestors and Tomb Robes." Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New ser., v. 22, no. 3 (November, 1963). JSTOR | PDF