Return to Japanese Mandalas
This mandala is one of a pair of mandalas that forms a Mandala of Both Worlds, a representation of the Buddhist cosmos as explained in two sacred esoteric texts originating in southwest India. Kūkai (774–835), a Japanese monk and founder of the Shingon School of Buddhism, encountered the Mandala of Both Worlds while studying in China with the monk Huiguo (746–805) of the Zhenyan School. This mandala and its mate (see next image), however, demonstrate iconographical inflections characteristic of the Mandalas of Both Worlds created within the Tendai School, founded by the Japanese monk Saichō (767–822), who also trained in China.
Together with the previous mandala (see image), this mandala forms a Mandala of Both Worlds, a representation of the Buddhist cosmos as explained in two sacred esoteric texts originating in southwest India. The inclusion of offering tables, presented symmetrically at the lower corners of the two sides of the large inner square sanctuary in this Womb World Mandala is standard for Tendai School versions, and can be contrasted with the typical Shingon iconography of the mandala. (See the Diamond World Mandala and Womb World Mandala by Matsubara Shōgetsu for examples of Shingon style.) Also notable here is a peculiar characteristic of the motif appearing above the central square. This central square contains the Buddha Dainichi Nyorai (Sanskrit: Mahavairochana Buddha) within an eight-lobed lotus, the petals of which support the Buddhas of the Four Directions and bodhisattvas. Above the square is a triangle that is topped by a leaf-shaped device backed by a halo and resting on a lotus pedestal, both of which contain swastikas. While this motif appears in Shingon mandalas, typically only one swastika is painted, and it appears within the triangle. It is the symbol of Adi-Dharma, or matter.
Dainichi Nyorai is known as the Supreme Buddha of the Cosmos in Esoteric Buddhist thought. He is the source from whom all other deities and everything in the universe emanate, as light does from the sun. Here, he appears in a form known as Ichiji Kinrin (Sanskrit: Ekaksara-ushnisha-chakra), or "One-Syllable Golden Wheel." His hands form the mudra (hand gesture) of perfect knowledge, also known as the "wisdom-fist" mudra (chiken-in), which holds the power to restrain passions that hinder enlightenment. (See the Scroll of Mudras for more about hand gestures.) With the left index finger surrounded and protected by the fingers of the right, this gesture expresses the all-encompassing union of the spiritual and material realms of being. At one time the sculpture also had a crown over the topknot adorned with images of the five buddhas who represent Dainichi's five forms. The graceful proportions of the sculpture are made possible by a new technique of carving and assembling sculpture in sections, characteristic of images of the later Heian period, when courtly aesthetics were paramount. In the glow of its original gold-leaf covering, this Dainichi must have appeared to embody his most common name, the Buddha of the Great Radiance of Illumination.
This sumptuously decorated mandala and its mate (see next image) preserve the iconography of the Mandala of Both Worlds as passed down in the Shingon School. The Diamond World manifests absolute wisdom, while the Womb World represents great compassion. Together they create the indestructible world of the Cosmic Buddha Dainichi Nyorai (Sanskrit: Mahavairochana Buddha). Diamond World Mandalas of the Shingon School are composed of nine equal-sized square assemblies. The viewer first encounters the square in the center, called the Perfected-Body Assembly, and enters other assemblies in a clockwise sequence. In the center of the top row is the sixth square, the One-Mudra Assembly. There, Dainichi sits with his hands placed in the gesture called the wisdom-fist mudra (chiken-in), in which the right fist encloses the index finger of the left hand. During important ceremonies such as ordination, commemoration of founders of the school, memorial rites, or the initiation of new temple buildings, the mandalas are typically hung facing each other, with the Womb World to the east and the Diamond World to the west.
This sumptuously decorated mandala and its mate (see previous image) preserve the iconography of the Mandala of Both Worlds as passed down in the Shingon School. In the Womb World Mandala, Dainichi appears seated in meditation at the heart of an eight-petaled lotus at the center of the mandala and emanates an essentially infinite hierarchy of forms, represented here in the surrounding rows of various images of buddhas, bodhisattvas, guardians, and symbols. The signature in the lower left corner of this Womb World Mandala reads "Painted by Matsubara Shōgetsu at the age of 64." The storage box for this scroll is decorated with the Tokugawa family crest, suggesting it may have belonged to the Tokugawa family's temple, Zōjōji, in Edo. The artist Shōgetsu was active as a professional Buddhist painter in the early nineteenth century.
Bishamonten (Sanskrit: Vaishravana) is the Guardian King of the North, one of the four fierce protectors of the cardinal directions (Shitennō). Originally Hindu gods known as the Lokapalas, the four were adopted into the Indian Buddhist pantheon. Along with eight other fierce kings, they also comprise the Twelve Devas (Jūniten) of Chinese and Japanese Esoteric Buddhism. Eight of them protect the eight directions and the remaining four symbolize heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon. Bishamonten is considered the most powerful of the Guardian Kings, as his direction, the north, is associated with danger. Tobatsu Bishamonten is one of several manifestations of the deity. In this form he is worshipped alone, rather than with the other Guardian Kings. He stands supported by the earth goddess Jiten (Sanskrit: Prithivi) and two dwarf-demons, Niranba and Biranba. Befitting his protective function, he has an angry countenance and wears warrior's garb fashioned along the lines of Tang dynasty Chinese military uniforms. Five seated buddhas, now barely visible, are painted upon his tall crown. In his left hand he supports a stupa, his main identifying feature. His right hand may have held a vajra (a weapon symbolic of a thunderbolt) to ward off evil forces. With the exception of the arms, which are attached at the shoulders, the entire statue is carved of a single block of wood. Based on original work by Masako Watanabe (Bridge of Dreams: The Mary Griggs Burke Collection of Japanese Art [New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000], cat. no. 9). Learn more about this book.
This large painting illustrates the hierarchical structure of the world of Han'nya Bosatsu (Sanskrit: Prajnaparamita bodhisattva), an emanation of the supreme Buddha Dainichi Nyorai (Sanskrit: Mahavairochana Buddha) who appears in the Womb World Mandala. This bodhisattva is the embodiment of transcendental knowledge and perfect wisdom. The painting is an example of a "single deity mandala" (besson mandara). Such mandalas focus on a particular aspect of Dainichi and are used for rituals invoking that aspect. Attended by Bonten (Sanskrit: Brahma) and Taishakuten (Sanskrit: Indra), Han'nya Bosatsu is enshrined in the central square as if on an altar. Surrounding him are various bodhisattvas, guardian deities, demons, heavenly music-making angels, and, finally, a monk. The mandala is also framed by painted images of auspicious dragons and a phoenix. The compositional structure of the mandala describes a gradual shift in the degree of iconic divinity from the center to the periphery. At the bottom center of the outermost register is the figure of the monk at worship who evokes the physical world of time and space. The painting is rendered in intense malachite green and azurite blue, to which patterns in cut-gold foil (kirikane) were applied. The surface of the Buddhist implements, gates, and robes was raised by a buildup of shell powder to enrich the majestic presentation. These technical features are characteristic of Buddhist painting of the Nanbokuchō and early Muromachi periods. Based on original work by Masako Watanabe (Bridge of Dreams: The Mary Griggs Burke Collection of Japanese Art [New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000], cat. no. 48). Learn more about this book.
Decorated circular tiles like this one were used to ornament temple eaves. On this tile, the Sanskrit seed syllable Hrih, which represents the Buddha Amida (Sanskrit: Amitabha), appears within an eight double-petaled lotus flower inside a pearl border. Tiles with Sanskrit letters are rare, though another example with Hrih has been excavated from Ōjōin, a temple site in Osaka dated to the first half of the thirteenth century. The present tile is more elaborate, which suggests a later date, perhaps the second half of the thirteenth century. Based on original work by Masako Watanabe (The Written Image: Japanese Calligraphy and Painting from the Sylvan Barnet and William Burto Collection [New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2002], cat. no. 18). Learn more about this book.
Painted Japanese Esoteric Buddhist Mandalas of Both Worlds are generally divided into three types based on how their main deities are presented. Many show the Buddha Dainichi Nyorai (Sanskrit: Mahavairochana Buddha) and his multiple emanations in figural form. In other Mandalas of Both Worlds, the deities are represented by their attributes (sanmai yagyō), typically ritual implements such as vajras or katsumas. This mandala is from a pair (see its mate) in which the deities are represented as the Sanskrit seed syllables (shuji) with which they are associated.
This mandala is from a pair (see its mate) in which the deities are represented as the Sanskrit seed syllables (shuji) with which they are associated. The syllable at the center of the Womb World Mandala (Taizōkai mandara) identifies Dainichi as he performs the meditation mudra (jō-in). It may be contrasted with the large seed syllable in the "One Seal Assembly" (ichiine) at the top center of the Diamond World Mandala (Kongōkai mandara), which is associated with Dainichi when he performs the knowledge-fist mudra (chiken-in).
Esoteric Buddhist rituals call for a number of accoutrements, one of the most important of which is an altar laden with offerings to a deity. The incense brazier, or kasha (literally, "fire house"), which contains incense for the purification of both the deity and the celebrant, stands at the center of the altar. This kasha consists of three parts: a tray-like main chamber standing on three sturdy legs, a middle section, and a dome-shaped lid surmounted by a knob in the form of a jewel. The incense smoke exits the dome through six openings in the shape of drifting clouds. The balanced proportions of the brazier, with its gently modeled curves and lid with sloping shoulders, make it one of the finest examples of its type from the Kamakura period. Based on original work by Miyeko Murase (Bridge of Dreams: The Mary Griggs Burke Collection of Japanese Art [New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000], cat. no. 29). Learn more about this book.
Rituals dedicated to the stars and planets were introduced to Japan in the ninth century together with Mikkyō teachings. Saturn, one of the Nine Luminaries of the stellar system, is illustrated here as an old man with a bull's head atop his own, dressed in a flowing robe.
This iconographic handscroll features representations of the thirty-seven principal Buddhist deities from the Diamond World Mandala, along with auxiliary deities, amounting to a total of forty-nine deities. According to an inscription, it was copied from a scroll belonging to the temple Zentō-in on Mount Hiei in Shiga prefecture. Zentō-in, in fact, possesses a scroll very similar to this one. Known as the Scroll of the Thirty-Seven Deities, the Zentō-in scroll was brought to Japan from China by the founder of the Tendai School, Saichō (767–822), in 806. Distinct from the Diamond World Mandala of Kūkai's (774–835) Shingon School (see example), in which bodhisattvas are shown sitting on lotus thrones, this Tendai School scroll depicts bodhisattvas riding animals and birds. The identities of some of the deities in the scroll are indicated with Sanskrit letters, while the attributes held by others are noted with Chinese characters. Scrolls such as this one were often copied by initiates into Esoteric Buddhism as a means of instruction, but the fine line work of this scroll indicates that it was brushed by a professional artist. It may have been used as a model for the production of hanging-scroll format painted mandalas.
This handscroll depicts hand gestures known as mudras in Sanskrit, the Indian language in which many early Esoteric Buddhist texts were written. In Japan, the gestures are called insō, the Japanese term for a Chinese word that combines the characters for "seal" and "form." In Esoteric Buddhism, mudras are physical enactments of ultimate truths revealed through the buddhas and other deities. Practitioners of Esoteric Buddhism in Japan form mudras during meditation and rituals and use them to interpret the meaning of painted and sculpted Buddhist images. This scroll was passed down in the Kyoto temple Shōren-in, a Tendai School temple traditionally administrated by imperial princes who had taken religious vows.
This magnificently large iconographic drawing would have been used by specialized Buddhist painters known as e-bushi (literally, "painting monks") in the creation of large-scale Buddhist paintings. The iconography of the eleven-headed form of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Jūichimen Kannon) is marked as esoteric by the fact that it has four, rather than two, arms. The image is consistent with the way the bodhisattva appears in the Womb World Mandala in the Hall of Soshitsuji. This section appears at the bottom of the cosmic diagram and represents the "power of excellent accomplishment." The bodhisattva is depicted at the far left of the group of eight bodhisattvas one would encounter just within the central gate at the bottom of the mandala. It is unusual to find this form of the bodhisattva depicted as a single image for worship.
The Twelve Divine Generals serve the Healing Buddha (Yakushi Nyorai) and protect all sentient beings. They are considered manifestations of the twelve vows of the Healing Buddha. This figure comes from a set that would have surrounded a central image of Yakushi on the altar of a temple. Images associating the generals with the twelve animals of the zodiac appear as early as the Tang dynasty (618–906) in a painting in the caves of Dunhuang. This iconography is not in evidence in Japan until the end of the Heian period (794–1185), when the faces and heads of the animals are found in the belts and headgear or hair of a group of sculptures at Tōdaiji temple. There is much diversity in the poses, faces, and garb of the Twelve Generals from set to set; thus the animals of the zodiac become an important identifying feature. This general is thought to be Bikara, who is identified with the boar.
Bishamonten is the Guardian King of the North, one of the four fierce protectors of the cardinal directions (Shitennō). Originally Hindu gods known as the Lokapalas, the four were adopted into the Indian Buddhist pantheon at an early point in its history. The four guardians—Jikokuten (Sanskrit: Dhrtarashtra) of the east, Kōmokuten (Virupaksha) of the west, Zōchōten (Virudhaka) of the south, and Bishamonten or Tamonten of the north—were in turn absorbed into the Mikkyō pantheon. In group representations, Bishamonten is usually identified by the miniature stupa—both a symbol of the Buddhist Law and a special treasure granted him by the Buddha—that he holds in his right hand. This small, youthful, but stern Bishamonten stands firmly on two scowling demons, Niranba and Biranba. His miniature stupa is supported on his left palm, while in his right hand he grasps a long lance. The shift of the stupa from the right to the left hand when Bishamonten is represented alone seems to have been introduced in Mikkyō mandalas at the beginning of the ninth century, thus establishing a new canon. The present statue was originally brightly colored, with floral and geometric patterns in paint and kirikane covering the layers of robes and armor. The small, shining eyes are inlaid. The sculpture is made of several pieces of wood, and its interior is hollowed out. Stylistically, the piece especially resembles a triad of sculptures made by Tankei (1173–1256) for the temple Sekkenji in Shikoku, and may therefore be attributed to an artist who closely followed Tankei's style or model in the first half of the thirteenth century. Based on original work by Miyeko Murase (Bridge of Dreams: The Mary Griggs Burke Collection of Japanese Art [New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000], cat. no. 23). Learn more about this book.
This handscroll from an illustrated set of three handscrolls (emaki) describes a love affair involving a young Buddhist novice (chigo) and an older monk, a type of story that became popular in the fourteenth century. It begins with the moment when the older monk, Keikai, from a temple on Mount Hiei, first glimpsed a handsome young acolyte named Umewaka, who lived at the nearby temple of Miidera. They met, exchanged letters, and finally spent the night together. On his way back to his temple, however, the boy was abducted by evil goblins. The monks of Miidera wrongly accused the monks of Mount Hiei as being responsible for his disappearance, and they retaliated by burning down the entire Miidera compound. The young man, blaming himself for the temple's destruction, drowned himself in Lake Biwa as penance. Keikai then dedicated the rest of his life to prayers for the boy's afterlife.
This portion of a long banquet scene comes from an illustrated biography of Kūkai (774–835), the founder of Japan's Esoteric Shingon School. Kūkai is also known by his posthumous title Kōbō Daishi (Great Master of Spreading the Buddhist Law) and by the sobriquet Koya Daishi, a name that derives from his primary temple of residence on Mount Kōya. In this painting, Kūkai celebrates his initiation into the esoteric teachings of his master Huiguo (746–805) of the Zhenyan School. The architecture of the temple and the garb of the figures attending the monks indicate that the location is China. A monk who may be Kūkai sits on a platform with two other monks and raises his black lacquered bowl and spoon. Illustrated biographies such as this flourished in the Kamakura and Nanbokuchō periods (1336–92), when members of the Pure Land School founded by Hōnen (1133–1212) and other Pure Land Buddhist organizations created them to promote their recently deceased founders and patriarchs. The Shingon School is notable among the more traditional Buddhist schools for the unusual vigor with which it matched the visualizing efforts of these newer Pure Land organizations. The scrolls would have played a central role in bringing to life and humanizing the school's dynamic ninth-century founder Kūkai.
The Cosmic Buddha Dainichi Nyorai (Sanskrit: Mahavairochana Buddha) appears here in the form of Myōken (Sanskrit: Sudarshana), a figure identified with the Pole Star and the constellation known in the West as the Big Dipper. He is surrounded in this image by demonic representations of the seven stars of the constellation. Between the two stars at the bottom is a chakra (hōrin or rinpō). In the external register are twelve human figures with animal heads, corresponding to the twelve symbols of the zodiac. This mandala would appear to derive in large part from the description of Myōken found in the Zuzōshō, a compendium of Esoteric Buddhist iconography. Because musk is associated with femininity, the antlered deer head perched atop that of Myōken may relate in part to the belief that he is also an emanation of the goddess Kichijōten (Sanskrit: Mahashri). There are also depictions of Myōken specific to Miidera temple that feature a deer head nested in the crown of his head, but which, in contrast to this image, show him riding a dragon. At Miidera, the deity is known as King of the Worthy Stars (Sonjō), and his worship historically played a role in the religious rivalries between Miidera and Mount Hiei.
The Shinto goddess Seiryū Gongen appears here in a domestic interior befitting an aristocratic occupant. She wears courtly vestments and carries a wish-fulfilling jewel (Sanskrit: chintamani) in her right hand. Just outside her chamber stands a young girl to whom she has given a book, the Records of Miraculous Medicine (Kōyaku no shirushi bumi). The goddess towers majestically over her young companion. The name Seiryū Gongen can be written in two ways: depending on the characters used, Seiryū means either "pure waterfall" or "blue dragon"; gongen is an honorific title that can mean "god" or "goddess." The goddess was believed originally to have been the titulary deity at Blue Dragon Temple (Chinese: Qinglongsi) in Chang'an (modern Xian), China. She is said to have been introduced to Japan by the monk Kūkai (774–835) and was later adopted as the protective deity of the Shingon School at Jingoji, a temple in Kyoto. There, she was worshipped as a manifestation of the daughter of the Dragon King Sagara, the princess Zen'nyō, whose enlightenment at the age of eight is described in the Lotus Sutra. She was later introduced to Daigoji in Kyoto and other Esoteric Buddhist temples where her nature underwent a complex metamorphosis through the Shinto-Buddhist syncretistic doctrine known as honji-suijaku (literally, "original ground and flowing traces"). In this doctrine, the deity was believed to be the avatar of two Esoteric Buddhist deities: Nyoirin Kannon (Sanskrit: Chintamanichakra), an alleviator of suffering, and Juntei Kannon (Sanskrit: Chundi), a deity associated with fecundity. A tradition where monks experience visions of the deity appears to have begun at Daigoji in the eleventh century, and this image closely corresponds to a vision had by the monk Shinken (1179–1261). Such visions were frequently commemorated with paintings. Based on original work by Miyeko Murase (Bridge of Dreams: The Mary Griggs Burke Collection of Japanese Art [New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000], cat. no. 35). Learn more about this book.
Niu Myōjin, the Shinto goddess of Mount Kōya, is depicted as a court lady seated on a tatami mat before sliding doors adorned with a landscape of the sea, pine-forested islands, and meandering shorelines. She is usually paired with Kariba Myōjin, the god of the mountain. According to legend, Kūkai (774–835) encountered two hunters (manifestations of the two gods) while searching for a suitable location to train disciples in the mountains. The local gods became integrated with Buddhist concepts. Niu Myōjin is also represented here as a Sanskrit character on the lotus pedestal in the circle at the top of the painting. The character stands for the Buddha Dainichi Nyorai as he appears in the Womb World; the corresponding character denoting Dainichi as he is manifest in the Diamond World would have been depicted on the missing painting of Kariba Myōjin. This work was probably copied from an earlier painting of Niu Myōjin owned by Kongōbuji temple at Mount Kōya.
The principal Buddhist vestment, termed kashaya in Sanskrit and kesa in Japanese, can be viewed many different ways: as a garment distinguishing clergy from laypersons; as a textile assembled in accordance with the rules of a school; as a product of the pious donation of cloth; and even as a simplified diagram of the Buddhist world, or mandala. In Japan, the kesa standard for Esoteric Buddhist rituals consists of a bordered patchwork with seven columns (jō), the short and long pieces within them set in a framework of vertical and horizontal strips (yō). A square patch occurs in each corner, and, commonly, a pair of larger patches flanks the central column. Most kesa are rectangular, like the platform of a Buddhist altar, and the patches in the four corners, termed shiten, are said to correspond to the Guardians of the Four Directions (Shitennō). During the making of a kesa, the central column, often larger than the others, is formed first, and the other columns ripple out from the center. This primacy suggests the column's role as the buddha of the mandala, which is often underscored by the presence of the "attendant" squares (niten) that flank the central column. These squares are sometimes said to stand for the bodhisattvas Monju (Sanskrit: Manjushri) and Fugen (Sanskrit: Samantabhadra) or for the two Benevolent Kings (Ni-ō), fierce guardian figures who protect the Buddhist Law. Although it happens only rarely, sometimes the six patches contain woven Sanskrit seed syllables that allow for the identification of the deities. The squares may also feature figural representations of the attendant bodhisattvas and the Guardians of the Four Directions. This kesa contains figural representations of both the Guardians of the Four Directions and the two Benevolent Kings.
Seated atop a white fox on a cloud held aloft by a pair of dragons, the young woman in fluttering, majestic raiment seems to be an apparition from across or perhaps beneath the vast billows that splash up in a frame of foam. She hovers over palatial tiles clenching a sword upright in her right hand; in her left palm she gently cradles a triad of sacred jewels, as others scatter around her as though lavished on the devotee. In her crown a diminutive fox alights on a coiled white snake, like those that encircle her wrists. Above this mysterious figure, a triad of sacred jewels, the chintamani symbolizing the very essence of life, rests on an open lotus, flanked by the complementary forces of sun and moon, similarly venerated on Buddhist lotus pedestals. This is a Japanese vision of the ancient Hindu deva Dakini, who, according to Esoteric Buddhist texts, was originally a man-eating demoness transformed by the Buddha Dainichi Nyorai (Sanskrit: Mahavairochana Buddha) into a powerful life-engendering deity. A telling example of the complex interaction of Buddhism, kami worship, and Daoist yin-yang practices in medieval Japan, this icon embodies powers of fecundity that were invoked in enthronement rituals as well as in personal contexts. Chanting of the mantra of this bodhisattva was practiced to achieve control over the human mind. According to several medieval tales, both men and women invoked Dakiniten to achieve position and favor at court, as well as in matters of the heart. The procreative power of this deity, whose vehicle is a white fox, readily led to assimilation with ancient Shinto worship to the fox deity Inari, and to further associations with another frequently invoked deity, Benzaiten (Sanskrit: Saraswati), in whose guise this originally wrathful deva appears in this icon.
The chakra (hōrin or rinpō) symbolizes the wheel of the Buddhist Law, hence the phrase "turning of the wheel" to describe the lectures given by the Historical Buddha. The eight spokes on this wheel, which correspond to the eight points of the outer edge, are shaped like a vajra. The hub resembles a lotus flower with eight petals and innumerable stamens. Two rings circle the rim where it meets the spokes, the inner ring with a pearl motif, the outer with a pattern of flower petals. The vajra-shaped spokes are thin in contrast to the wide and thick outer rim, suggesting that this chakra is a work of the late Kamakura period. Based on original work by Miyeko Murase (Bridge of Dreams: The Mary Griggs Burke Collection of Japanese Art [New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000], cat. no. 28). Learn more about this book.